Now that we are done with literature, we will begin discussing the aspects of Viking History that such literature has helped us to better understand. I have talked about this subject once before with @gothic-metalhead​ through the following ask. Some of that information will be provided here, but you may also refer to that post for more detail. Our sources for Viking Age social structure often come from indirect or later sources, especially from Iceland. This is something to keep in mind while reading and one of the main reasons we spent five lessons on literature. 

I would like to begin with an incomplete eddic poem called Rígsþula(The Lay of Rig), and then I will begin breaking down its simplicity with the complexities of reality. This poem is tied into mythological elements, which is useful in ways beyond the study of social structure. It is 48 stanzas long, but I will only provide the first 13, since I am sure that most will not wish to read the entire thing. (If you would like to though, see the source for it below or message me). You may skip it if you’d like, but I find it to be quite enlightening for this discussion.

In old tales, men say that one of the Æsir, Heimdall by name, journeyed along a sea-coast, and that he came to a farmhouse, where he went by the name of Rig. This poem tells the story.

1. They said that long ago,
Rig went striding along green paths,
a wise god, powerful, old,
strong and vigorous.

2. He kept to the middle of the paths,
came to a house, the door was wide open.
In he went. A fire burned on the floor;
a gray-haired couple sat by the hearth:
Great-grandfather, and Great-grandmother
in her old-fashioned head-gear.

3. Rig knew how to give them advice.
He sat himself down
in the middle of the seating area;
on either side sat the couple 
from the homestead.

4. Then Great-grandmother took a lumpy loaf,
thick and heavy, full of bran.
She brought it
placed in the center of dishes.
There was broth in a bowl;
she placed it on the table.
He rose up from there 
and got ready for sleep.

5. Rig knew how to give them advice.
He lay down in the middle of the bed.
On either side lay the couple
from the homestead.

6. He stayed there three whole nights.
He travelled on in the middle of the paths.
Then nine months passed.

7. Great-grandmother gave birth
to a dark-skinned baby;
they wrapped him in linen,
sprinkled him with water,
named him Thrall.

8. He grew and flourished.
On his hands he had wrinkled skin,
knobby knuckles, thick fingers.
Ill-favored was his face, 
stooped his back, long his heels.

9. He began to exert his strength
binding bast [hemp, jute],
bundling up loads,
carrying home faggots
all the weary day.

10. To the dwelling came a footloose girl
with muddy soles, sunburnt arms, and a hooked nose.
Her named was Thir [Thrallwoman].

11. In the middle of the seating area
she sat herself down,
the son of the house sat beside her.
They talked and whispered,
made their bed, Thrall and Thir,
lived crowded days.

12. They had children,
settled down and were happy.
I think their names were
Bellower and Byreman,
Coarse and Clegg,
Whoreson and Stinky,
Log and Lumpen,
Layabout and Grizzly,
Bent-Back and Leggy.
They built fences,
spread dung on the fields,
tended swine, guarded goats,
cut peat.

13. Their daughters were
Loggy and Lumpy,
Beef-Calves and Beaky-Nose,
Bustle-About and Serving-Wench,
Stumpy, Raggedy, and Crane-Shanks.
From them are descended
the thrall families.

[…]

The poem repeats like this for the other two main social classes, Karl and Jarl. Except, for them, the terminology changes and becomes more clean and positive. The portion I provided describes the Thralls, the lowest class in Viking Age society. As one might notice, they are not spoken very well of. Keep in mind that the author of this poem definitely would not have been a part of this class.

Contents:

1. Stereotypes versus Reality
2. Thralls
3. Karls
4. Jarls

Stereotypes versus Reality

The poem I provided above, although only a third, shows an idealized picture of a social class entirely based on stereotypical images (as indicated by the names of their children). The reality of their status is likely not far off, but most definitely not so straightforward either. Most people were farmers and craftsmen, and classes ranged from thrall to landowner. Yet, in reality, there were only two classes in Viking Age society: free and slave.

The poem I shared presents an ideal and goes as follows:

1. Thrall (slave)
2. Karl (freeman)
3. Jarl (Earl)
4. * Konungr (King)

The Konungr class would be drawn from the Jarl class, for the sons of Jarls would have the highest chance for obtaining higher dominance. Still, this concept is only the surface of actual society, as we can gather from other sources, such as from sagas and other records. The reality looked more like this:

1. Slaves (Thrall)
2. Servants (Karl – young or elderly)
3. Cotters (Karl, could be nearly Thrall)
4. Tenants (Karl, could be nearly Thrall)
5. Small farmers (Karl)
6. Big farmers (Karl)
7. Chieftains (Jarl)
8. Kings (Konungr)

What is important to know, and something the poem does not give insight to, is that people could move in and out of these classes. Honor governed social status in Viking Society. 

“Status had to be carefully maintained or aggressively acquired: one’s status depended on the conditions of one’s honor, for it was in the game of honor that rank and reputation was attained and retained. Honor was at stake in virtually every social interaction.” (Miller, 29)

Still, for the sake of this lesson, I will stick to the simplified understanding to explain the different aspects and rankings of Viking Age society. Just keep in mind the complexity of each class, especially of the widely varied Karl class.

Thralls (Þrællar)

Thralls were mostly used as domestic workers. They lacked an individual legal status within society (no real voice in feuds, although they have been used as chess-pieces for feuds). Here is a quote from Njal’s saga about slaves in feuds:

“Slaves are much more active than they used to be: then they just got into brawls, and that seemed harmless enough, but now they’re out to kill each other.” (Njal, 63)

They were able to buy their freedom, but they could not buy their status. Their children, however, could eventually gain the status of a Karl. Most thralls were foreigners, typically Irish, and were used for ransom. Thralls were also except from military duty. Most households had slaves (along with servants, not the same thing), and they were considered to be the legal property of the owners and generally stayed connected with their masters.

Slavery died out between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in Scandinavia, and perhaps as early as the tenth century for Iceland.

Karls (Karlar)

Karla, according to Icelandic law, were technically valued the same. However, this was not the case in reality. Karls could hold many different positions:

1. Servants
2. Renters
3. Crafters
4. Warriors
5. * Landholders

The majority of Karl, however, occupied the landholder role, for this was the backbone for the social class. There are two major types I will provide:

1. Hauldr – large, ancestral land holdings
2. Bóndi – most common, less holdings

All free men were able to attend the þing (thing, assembly) and express their views. However, it was not simply a right but also a responsibility. It was land that provided this social class their prestige, but honor still could pull them up or down. Big farmers are the ones that we know more about, since they often also have bigger roles and voices in assemblies and sagas.

Jarls (Jarlar)

Jarls occupies the highest ranks of society, being the powerful families that were skilled in law, knowledge, and wealth. We know much more about them since they are the ones who wrote and were able to preserve information. They are the families that utilized trade networks and raids to acquire luxury items, such as jewelry or wine, making their homes look extravagant and large. Take the longhouse at Borg, Norway for example:

This longhouse is actually the largest one discovered so far. Jarls used their homes as a meeting place, providing music and speeches for public gatherings. Poems and sagas took place in these halls. Scenes of mythology were enacted and brought to life in these halls. 

Seats were based on rank, and therefore extremely important. This occurs quite often in sagas, and is partly the central reason for many feuds. Also, if any of the social events were not done correctly, it could cause insult, which causes feud.

Scandinavia was politically fragmented, filled with competition. Jarls, the aristocracy, dotted the landscape and excessed various levels of power and authority. For a king to rise, it would be a Jarl who demonstrated military and religious prowess, as well as their various relations. Kings lived for honor, not for life. In order to show their prowess, they fought in the frontline with their men.

Key Terms

1. Rígsþula (The Lay of Rig) – mythological poem about the social classes of Viking Age society.
2. Honor – the force that determined prestige, rank, and class within Viking Age society.
3. Thralls – slaves, often foreigners (Irish).
4. Karls – middle-class, widely varied, mostly farmers.
   1. Hauldr – ancestral lands, often big holdings
   2. Bóndi – most common, smaller holdings
   3. þing – assembly of free men
5. Jarls – aristocracy, powerful and wealthy families.
   1. Borg – example of a jarl’s longhouse, longest discovered so far.

Wrap-up

“An old man could not relax, nor even the corpse that had suffered violent death, for the final assessment of the victim’s honor depended on how much compensation or how great a vengeance his kin could exact on his behalf.” (Miller, 31)

Next week’s lesson: Lesson 11 – Law.

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Sources

1. Jennifer Dukes-Knight, “Society and Law” Lecture, Viking History, University of South Florida, 2015.
2. Rígsþula: Angus A. Somerville and R. Andrew McDonald, ed. The Viking Age: A Reader, Second Edition (Readings in Medieval Civilizations and Cultures). (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 16-19.
3. William Ian Miller, Bloodtaking and Peacemaking: Feud, Law, and Society in Saga Iceland. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 29, 31. (honestly, this entire book.)
4. Robert Cook trans., Njal’s Saga. (London: Penguin Classics, 2001), 63.
5. (Image) Reconstructed long house in the Vikingmuseum in Borg, Vestvågøy/Lofoten, Norway. (link)