Viking Age Writing: Runes

This week’s lesson will explore the history of runes during the Viking Age. The younger futhark will be the prime focus of discussion, since those were the runes used throughout the Viking Age, but I will still touch on each set of Futhark during this lesson. I am by no means an expert, but this lesson should prove to be suitable for getting a hang on the basics. This is a much more detailed lesson than normal (in fact, it is the longest single-post lesson yet) and I do hope that I did a decent job with the material.

If you have not done so already, check out last week’s lesson on Viking Spirituality. Visit “Viking History” on my blog for all of the lessons.

Contents:

1. Foreword (feat. Hávamál, st.138-144)
2. Background
3. The Futhark
   1. The Elder
   2. The Younger
4. Reading and Translating
5. Writing and Usage
6. Examples
7. Key Terms
8. Wrap-up
9. Sources

Foreword

I hung, I know,
on the wind-tossed tree
for nine nights in all,
suffered the spear wound,
was offered to Odin,
—myself to my self—
tormented on the tree
which rises from roots
hidden from human kind.

No one brought me bread,
drink was denied me,
groundward I gazed,
raised up the runes,
screaming I sought them,
but fell back from there.

Nine savage spells
I fetched from the famous son
of Bolthorn, Bestla’s father,
and I drank deep
of poetry’s precious mead,
the outpourings of Odrer.

I began to bear fruit,
and welcome wisdom,
began to burgeon and flourish;
word after word
led me to more words,
work after work
led me to more works.

Learn to recognize runes,
cleverly ordered characters,
signs with great significance,
characters of colossal power
woven by the wisest one,
made by the greatest gods,
engraved by Odin the god.

Odin cut them for the Æsir
Dain etched them for the elves
Dvalin for the dwarfs
Asvid etched them for the giants,
I myself made some for mankind.

Do you comprehend how runes are cut?
how to comment on the characters?
how the characters must be colored?
how to test their truth?
how prayer is to be practiced?
do you understand how offerings are made?
how the sacrifice is sent on its way?
how the sacrifice is slaughtered?

Runes are wrapped in myth and mystery. Even today, questions still swirl around them like a violent wind. Who carved them? Were they a sacred knowledge reserved for those who devoted their life to them? Or could anyone carve runes and still retain their integrity? No matter the question at hand, one thing is certain: words have power, and runes were the vehicle used to be able to wield such a power.

Background

Runic inscriptions are the only original written sources of the Viking Age. They provide us a great variety of information wrapped in riddle and poetic verse. These inscriptions have preserved legal patterns, naming patterns, customs, and inheritance practices. Runes are the main source for social, historical, and linguistic information. Runes were most often used for identification, commemoration, messages, and magic. These practices can be found in the saga tradition. Runes were also significant when placed on weapons. The one problem with using runes for historical purposes is that there were no narratives. Inscriptions were usually short and most commonly used for memorials.

The earliest runes date to the 1st century CE and were likely adapted from the Roman Empire, originating from the north italic alphabet via Celtic Gaul. the roman alphabet was not used in Scandinavia until Christianity came to the region (ca. 1000 CE). They were carved by all classes, though most runestones were commissioned and done by “professionals” or “specialists” sorts. It is likely that runes began as a closed off realm for only those devoted to learning them, however, at least by the time the younger futhark were being used, runes became something many people carved.

The Futhark

There are actually quite a large variety of rune types, such as Anglo-Saxon, Gothic, and Frisian runes. However, for this lesson, I will be focusing on the runes used in Scandinavia before and during the Viking Age. Runes come to us in two main alphabets of individual sounds called “futhark” because those are the first six runes of each alphabet. These alphabets are generally split into three different family groups called ætt (pl. ættir – literally meaning family or generation). There are two main Futhark sets: Elder and Younger. I feel it would be more helpful to include my Rune Charts (Second Edition) before discussing the Futhark, so you may refer to it here (or here) as you read:

The Elder Futhark (24 runes)

This set of runes were not used much during the Viking Age, but it is helpful to know them and understand how the Younger Futhark formed from it. The elder futhark were used primarily between ca. 200-900 CE, though these dates are by no means concrete. Each of these runes has depth and meaning on its own. Information about their names and symbolic meaning come from runic poems, but that information is difficult to interpret with confidence (there are only three “rune poems” that we have to determine this information). Here is the Kylver Runestone (ca. 400 CE), which contains the full set of elder futhark:

There are roughly 350 elder futhark inscriptions known today. Of these inscriptions, about 260 of them are in Scandinavia. The rest are from continental Europe (unlike the younger futhark, which has inscriptions overseas). elder futhark inscriptions are typically found in graves and bogs or on materials that have the best chance for preservation (bone and metal). Many inscriptions have likely been lost, especially those done on wood or leather.

Many people are more fascinated with the elder futhark due to them being the oldest of rune sets. They are the most often discussed when it comes to understanding their magical component (at least that is what I have noticed). However, the younger futhark did not loose this characteristic. Many sagas emphasize the usage of runes for magical purposes (even in the later medieval period).

The Younger Futhark (16 runes)

The elder futhark was shortened to 16 characters around the beginning of the Viking Age. These runes are much simpler than the elder futhark and can be carved much easier since they each have only one vertical mark. Individually, the runes are called “long-branch runes” due to them generally being carved with fuller strokes. Still, the younger futhark retain the ættir system and individual characteristics. Here is an image of the Gørlev runestone(ca. 900 CE), which displays the earliest complete example of the younger futhark:

As one may quickly note, there are not enough runes for each sound. The younger futhark, though easier to use, are more difficult to read due to each rune having multiple possibilities. However, one thing to still be thankful of is that carvers finally began to use dots (or small “x”s) to indicate spaces between words by the tenth century. Before this, words strung together completely. I will be discussing the complications of reading runes in a moment.

These inscriptions can be found in many more places than the elder futhark. The younger futhark were a product of the Viking Age’s ingenuity and new ambitions. They can be found across seas in areas of Norse activity, such as an inscription dating the the fourteenth century can be found in the north of Greenland. On the other end of the spectrum, runic inscriptions can be found as far as the Byzantine empire.

So, although there is more popularity in the elder futhark, the younger futhark is essentially the polished up version. It was an innovation of the Vikings and has proven itself to be quite capable. If you want to learn runes so that you can read the words of the Viking Age from Vikings themselves (and the runes referred to in the sagas), focus on this set.

Other Variations

Runes come in many, many variations. In fact, even the alphabets I have mentioned have variations based on the carvers and regional linguistic differences. I have already mentioned that other cultures had different runes, but even the Scandinavians themselves used a variety of runes. The younger futhark has a prominent variation set called Short-twig runes. These runes were primarily used in Norway and Sweden, especially be travelers and merchants. They are much easier to carve and were essentially used as a cursive script. Some inscriptions even mix younger and short-twig runes, such as seen on the Isle of Man. Runes still managed to survive even when the latin alphabet was primarily used. From this we get the three later medieval variations of /e/, /g/, and /y/. These runes are influenced by latin and there are even some runic writings of latin works and sayings that use them.

Reading and Translating

It can be quite difficult to read runes, since it was generally up the carver how they were going to be written. Inscriptions are usually not spaced or punctuated, words run together, and spelling is all over the place. To demonstrate the lack of a spelling standard, and just how difficult it can get to read even a single word, we will take the old norse word gerði (made) for example:

As you can see, reading those runes can be a bit complicated. It can be even more complicated in manuscripts. Here are all the variations of gera (to make) that have been seen: gøra, göra, görva, görwa, giörva, giora, and gjöra. A single word can end up having multiple possibilities. The way this has been combatted is a standardized Old Norse and by using context to figure out the correct word. 

The main thing to remember is this: a small mistake can lead to a big misunderstanding. So, make sure you know your runes well before you try to translate them (or use them yourself, for that matter).

One thing that helps translation runestones is that they are often set up the same. Runestones typically have the same patterned language, which will aid translating. This pattern is typically: “x raised for y”, or “x raised this stone for y”, who died doing “z”. It is also typical that the relationship is included, as in how person “x” is related to person “y”. Some runestones will also include a praise or prayer at the end of the inscription as well.

Writing and Usage

Writing runes is about as complicated as reading them, and, to be honest, this section has as much to do with reading them as it does writing them yourself. I have noticed that the method for writing runes is pretty much entirely up to the carver. However, there are some trends that are used in general that are good to note. The major trend is that carvers aimed to make their job as easy as possible. If a letter is supposed to be doubled (such as for óðinn, Þórr, átta (eight), ætt, etc), the second letter is left out. This should be no surprise, since material and space was limited. This is the very reason why the elder futhark were shortened to begin with.

Some notable complications

1. There are two r-runes:
   1. /r/ = /r/ sound while the /R/ = /z/ sound.
   2. There were differenced in usage in east and west Scandinavia. In the west (Norway and Iceland), the two sounds merged into a trilled /r/, while in the east (Sweden and Denmark) they remained different until the end of the Viking Age.
   3. Modern convention is to translate as it is in the chart I made. One as a lower case /r/ and the other as an upper case /R/.
2. There are two a-runes:
   1. The a-rune in the first set of runes is for the /a/ sound in father, while the a-rune in the second set is the /a/ sound in bank.
3. There are two m-runes:
   1. These two runes are relatively the same and are just variations of one another.

Knowing which rune to use can be difficult. It requires knowing the sounds of each word and letter before knowing which rune to carve. I still struggle with this at times, particularly with /a/ and /o/ sounds. It is a matter of experience and by seeing examples and how past carvers have done it. Knowing which rune to use is only an issue when trying to write with them, at least.

Examples

The following runestones are examples of the various usages they could have. Although most were for memorial, some were used to display power and authority in its various forms. Others have been used to tell heroic stories from the past.

Jarlbanke Runestones (U 127)

This runestone was raised to display wealth and power. The man who had these stones made raised them himself for himself while he was still alive. They tell of his possessions and accomplishments.

The Glavendrup Runestone (DR 209)

For this runestone, a woman named Ragnhildr raised this stone. She was the head of her household and displays the amount of wealth and power wives were actually in control of in such a position.

The Jelling Stone (Harald’s Runestone) (DR 42)

This runestone is actually Denmark’s birth certificate, since it is the first written record of the name being used. It was risen to proclaim his control over Denmark and its conversion to Christianity.

Rasmund/ Sigurd Runestone (Sö 101)

This runestone (or rather a detail of it) depicts some of the events of Sigurd’s legend. It is not in order, but rather shows various events linked to the beginning half of the story. The runes are also featured within a dragon illustration.

Key Terms

1. Runic inscriptions – Runes carved onto objects, especially stone, wood, metal, or bone.
2. The North Italic Alphabet – Older language stem originating from Greece.
3. Celtic Gaul – Roughly modern day France
4. The Futhark – The name used to refer to rune alphabets.
5. ætt (pl. ættir) – Literally meaning family or generation. The term used to refer to the different parts of the Futhark.
6. The Elder Futhark – 24 characters. Used roughly between 200 and 900 CE. It is the older of the two main Futhark.
   1. Kylver Runestone – ca. 400 CE. Displays the full Elder Futhark.
7. The Younger Futhark – 16 characters. Used roughly between 900 and 1000 CE. It is a later version of the elder futhark.
   1. Long-branch runes – The term used to refer to individual younger futhark runes.
   2. Gørlev runestone – ca 900 CE., it is the earliest record of the full younger futhark.
   3. Short-twig runes – A shorter variation of the younger futhark. Used mostly in Norway and Sweden.
   4. Later medieval variations – /e/, /g/, and /y/ rune variations of the later medieval period, influenced by latin.
8. Jarlbanke Runestones (U 127) – Runestone displaying wealth and power.
9. The Glavendrup Runestone (DR 209) – Runestone displaying a women’s power as the head of a household.
10. The Jelling Stone (Harald’s Runestone) (DR 42) – Runestone displaying political power and religious conversion.
11. Rasmund/ Sigurd Runestone (Sö 101) – Runestone depicting heroic material (the legend of Sigurd the dragon slayer).

Wrap-up

In the end, runes are full of mystery and fascination. I am no expert and have not provided an all-encompassing account of the topic, but I know that it will prove to be helpful to some. I suggest looking into Jesse L. Byock’s book (cited below) if you really want to learn more. I hope that I have done well with this topic and hope that the lesson is credible and helpful enough. If you have any questions about this lesson (or anything else), feel free to send me an ask. 

Next week’s lesson: Literature and the Sagas, Part I. [multi-part lesson series]

---

Sources

• Angus A. Somerville and R. Andrew McDonald, ed. The Viking Age: A Reader, Second Edition (Readings in Medieval Civilizations and Cultures). (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 60-61.
• Geir T. Zoëga, A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic. (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2004), 525.
• Jennifer Dukes-Knight, “Runes and Spirituality,” Lecture, Viking History, University of South Florida, 2015.
• Jesse L. Byock, Viking Language 1: Learn Old Norse, Runes, and Icelandic Sagas. (Jules William Press, 2013), 74-79.

Images (in order of appearance)

• Sigurd Agrell, “Lapptrummor och runmagi.“ (1934) <link>
• Roberton Fortuna, commisioned by the Danish National Museum. <link>
• Runestone U 127 at Danderyd church, Danderyd. <link>
• Ann-Sofi Cullhed, Detail of the Ramsund Sigurd stone, c. 1030. <link>
• Danielle Keller, Photo of Glavendrup stone, a runestone from Funen, Denmark. <link>
• Erik Christensen, Harald’s runestone, side A. <link>