Sagas: Skalds and Poetry

This week we will begin a discussion on skalds (poets) and their tradition. Poetry had a much higher value in the medieval world than it does today. Words had power, so much so that they could even physically deform you. Law texts specifically note punishments for slandering someone’s name. This is not only unique to Scandinavian region either, for even Ireland and Celtic regions expressed similar concerns. The realm of the skald was quite an important one. In Ireland, a poet (filid) could even obtain the same rank as a king. Furthermore, that poet could travel freely to other lands in Ireland, which is actually something kings could not do. So, do not let yourself be fooled into thinking a discussion on poets is something to shrug off. Skalds were the keepers of lore and history. They governed honor and rose kings to power, but they could bring them down just as easily.

Contents:

What is a Skald?
Skaldic Poetry
Poetics
Egil Skallagrimsson

What is a Skald?

Skald was the word used to refer to traditional poets and oral performers (storytellers) in the Old Norse language. Other languages called them by different names, such as the Irish Filid or the Anglo-Saxon Scop. It was no simple task to become a poet. It required the memorization of many myths and legends as well as an extremely strong command of language. It meant keeping up with events, history, and complex family genealogies. Skalds obtained a high status within society due to their significant roles. They were the keepers of history, the allocators of fame, and they worked for powerful men who sought to benefit from their talent.

Most skalds were men, but in the Scandinavian world there were some female poets. This is interesting to note, since only men could be poets in Ireland, for example. Jórunn Skáldmær (”Skald Maiden”) is a poetess who allegedly diffused an entire war through her intervention. Steinunn was the mother of the poet Refr Gestsson, suggesting the possibility of both female poets as well as a family trade.

Skaldic Poetry

The poetry of the skalds was composed between the ninth century and the fourteenth century. It was typically written in order to praise certain rulers and other powerful figures. Most skalds worked as court poets for kings and chieftains, providing them fame and spreading word of their achievements. Their poetry would be connected to the named skald. Skaldic verse was often integrated into saga narrative as well, providing additional historical “credibility” into the story that is being told.

Strict rules governed skaldic poetry, which is very important in terms of retaining historical information. After all, skaldic poetry was a very sophisticated art form with an important function within society. Due to this strict format, alteration of information was much more difficult, keeping the material more consistent as it passed through time. It would be noticeable if material was altered given these restrictions and guidelines. It is quite possible that some poetry feature deliberate archaizing, to make it seem older than it actually is. It is up the modern reader to be cautious before jumping to conclusions.

Skaldic verse requires a command of a great deal of knowledge. This poetry often plays on mythological tales as well as legendary tales to work with the strict meter. Even the reader and listener were expected to understand these references in order to comprehend the meaning behind the poem. Skalds made use of two poetic devices in order to achieve these allusions within poetic restrictions: heiti and kennings. Heiti are elaborate synonyms, such as using the word Ygg for Odin and Ygg’s son for Thor. Kennings are round about descriptions, such as referring to a boat as a fjord-serpent. These could get quite complicated, such as the wound-sea’s reed, where wound-sea refers to blood and a reed of blood is a sword. It is also common for this poetry to refer to men as trees.

Poetics

There are many different forms and types of skaldic poetry, but I will break down one of the most common types of skaldic poetics: dróttkvætt (Court-meter). After going through the many fine details and requirements, I think you will realize just how difficult and sophisticated this poetry can be.

Each segment has eight lines.
There are two four-lined stanzas that make it up, called helmingar.
Each line features six syllables.
Three of these per line are stressed syllables.
Three alliterative staves per line pair (bolded below):

þung til þessar göngu,
þinn, kinnalá minni.

All vowels alliterate with one another.
Even lines have one alliterative stave — höfuðstafr (head stave).
Odd lines have two alliterative staves.
There are two rhyming syllables per line.
The second rhyme always falls on the last stress.
Odd lines have half-rhyme (the vowel can change, but not consonant clusters).
Even lines have full rhyme.
Word order can be quite flexible.

Here is a full example of skaldic poetry in dróttkvætt:

Títt erum verð at vátta,
vætti ber ek at ek hætta
þung til þessar göngu,
þinn, kinnalá minni.
Margr velr gestr þar er gistir,
gjöld, finnumsk vér sjaldan,
Ármóði liggr, œðri,
ölðra dregg í skeggi.
— Egil Skallagrimsson

Translation: I’m eager to acknowledge your meal with my cheek-surge (kenning for vomit). I bear heavy witness in venturing to come here. Many a guest pays a dearer price where they stay; we seldom meet. The dregs of ale lie in Ármóðr’s beard.

Egil Skallagrimsson

Egil Skallagrimsson was born in Borg, Iceland ca. 990. He is one of the most famous skalds that we know of today. His life is told in Egil’s Saga, although it is more of a novel than a biography. This saga is sometimes referred to as the “Poet’s saga,” since it features and centers around the life of a poet.

His saga is a battle between youth and old age, between glory and waiting. He is contrasted by a tender poet called Sonatorrek, since Egil is depicted as violent yet respectable. Egil had become the “darker, uglier one” who managed to survive into old age. His story takes on a larger symbolic context of the anxiety behind growing old.

Note: [I will be reading this saga later this summer. If you would all like me to do a read along series of posts, let me know. I have seen that kind of thing before, such as the posts by @edderkopper. Anyway, I recommend reading it yourself if you are interested in skalds and the themes of Egil’s story.]

Key Terms

Skáld – Old Norse term for a poet.
Filid – Old Irish term for a poet.
Scop – Anglo-Saxon term for a poet.
Jórunn Skáldmær – (”Skald Maiden”) a poetess who allegedly diffused an entire war through her intervention.
Steinunn – the mother of the poet Refr Gestsson, suggesting the possibility of both female poets as well as a family trade.
Heiti – elaborate synonyms, often using mythological material.
Kenning – round about descriptions.
Dróttkvætt – “Court-meter”
Höfuðstafr – “Head-stave”, the alliterative stave of an even line.
Egil Skallagrimsson – one of the most famous skalds that we know of today.
Egil’s Saga – The “Poet’s Saga”, telling the life of Egil.

Wrap-up

This lesson has covered only the tip of the rich, complicated tradition of the skalds. They were the keepers of history, lore, and fame. Without skalds, it is quite possible that we would know very little about the days of medieval Scandinavia or Iceland. Although poetry is something taken for granted in today’s society, it was a vital component of medieval society in various cultures.

Next week’s lesson: Literature and the Sagas, Part IV: Kingly and Heroic Saga Literature. [multi-part lesson series]

Sources

Jennifer Dukes-Knight, “Literature and the Sagas.” Lecture, Viking History, University of South Florida, 2015.
Debbie Potts, “Introduction to Skaldic Poetry.” Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic, University of Cambridge. (link)
(Image) Seventeenth century Icelandic manuscript AM 426 fol., now in the care of the Árni Magnússon Institute in Iceland.